six characteristics of socialist law

2 vols. New York: Columbia Univ. It must come from an authority which has the powers to make such laws. It has More Flexibility: A socialist economy is much more flexible than a capitalist economy because of the control on market forces. Today, while socialism has lost its place as a major economic ideology in the world, we still have a number of countries that practice socialism, either fully or partially, including countries like Cuba, Chin, North Korea, Venezuela and Vietnam. Law is the normative and institutional order through which human behavior is governed within societies , taking into account the principles of justice and security. A government that is chosen through popular election manages the means of production. Read more about this topic: Socialist Law, In the years of the Roman Republic, before the Christian era, Roman education was meant to produce those character traits that would make the ideal family man. The emphasis on the educational role of law is connected with the theory of the dying out of state and law once communism is achieved. [3] Although the command economy approach of the communist states meant that most types of property could not be owned, the Soviet Union always had a civil code, courts that interpreted this civil code, and a civil law approach to legal reasoning (thus, both legal process and legal reasoning were largely analogous to the French or German civil code system). 279-280). Pages Sitemap. Socialism is, broadly speaking, a political and economic system in which property and the means of production are owned in common, typically controlled by the state or government. Although it's generally considered a capitalist country, it does exhibit characteristics of socialism. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press. The fundamental goal of promoting law-based governance is to protect the people's rights and interests. The system was hedged about, however, with provisions designed to prevent its being used contrary to the interests of the proletarian dictatorship. The answer is easy where the socialist countries have developed original approaches since these constitute separate typical solutions which will be discussed as such. This is one of the many systems of a society alongside bureaucratic, economic and social systems. Despite the resurgence in the popularity of the socialist ideology, there is a lack of understanding of what exactly socialism is. ?.t.pVGYYZO!%dM.wM`HWG%XCj Soviet Legal Philosophy. Since the economy is controlled by a central authority, this authority can plan for the future and put in place measures to ensure that the countrys natural resources are conserved and utilized efficiently. 11. North Korea is another country that is majorly socialist. Socialism is described as an economic and political system in which the means of production operate under public property, which is sometimes also called common property. When the cold war ended and the Soviet Union collapsed in 1989, support for the socialist legal model waned considerably. In criminal law the element of personal guilt was emphasized as an essential element of crime. Socialism rose as a reaction to the injustices of early capitalism. Resources are used fully and there is minimal wastage. According to the socialistic environment, competitive people create unwanted disturbances in the economy. Those needs are food, shelter, clothing, health, education and employment. 8 ZQ5bTaH9" oh@ypU\ST^9_Nm:5FEqa^h"gi|wpkm_Lr`'[oX!ET0~#A,:E^`taDhPc n Press. Schlesinger, Rudolf (1945) 1951 Soviet Legal Theory: Its Social Background and Development. "Socialist legality postulates that in a socialist society, the law should serve as a tool to promote the development of socialism." (Bookrags.com, 2010) "The ultimate control of the legal system lay with the party leadership, which was not democratically elected by, and therefore not responsible to, the public at large." (Bookrags.com, 2010) Socialist thought was a product of its own time and environment. Xi underscored adopting a mindset consistent with the rule of law . 1 Browse more Topics under Introduction To Business Economics. In this kind of socialism, production and consumption are controlled and regulated by market forces instead of the state. CHINA: BUILDING "CAPITALISM WITH SOCIALIST CHARACTERISTICS" BACKGROUND: In the beginning the core of the society was the extended family and an agricultural society.In 1949 Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the "Peoples Republic of China". Compare this to capitalist societies where a person might be employed yet doesnt earn enough to get house to sleep at night or to pay for healthcare when he falls sick. The procurator-general of the U.S.S.R. and his subordinates at all levels have the function not only of indicting and prosecuting criminals but also of supervising legality generally. Provision of basic needs by the government can, however, result in the masses thinking that they cannot survive without the government, creating a perfect environment for the rise of authoritarian governments. This is a type of socialism that merges socialist thought with green politics. On the basis of these Fundamental Principles the various Soviet republics have begun to enact new codes in these fields. Its a take-it-or-leave-it situation. In accord with this theory, various paralegal bodies have been established-notably, informal comrades courts in factories and apartment houses, which mete out reprimands and light fines for minor offenses, as well as peoples patrols (druzhiny), which act as volunteer auxiliary police. You might be assigned a house to live in and a vehicle to commute with. The People's Republic of China shall practice law-based governance and build a socialist state under the rule of law. E-mail is already registered on the site. In the NYU Journal of International Law and Policy, William Partlett and Eric Ip argue that socialist law helps to understand the "Russo-Leninist transplants" that currently operate in China's socialist law system. The state shall safeguard the unity and sanctity of the socialist legal system. Owning a cow for commercial purposes would be treated as a crime. Socialism strives to reinforce the idea that everyone is created equally and deserves a community that with treat them with equality. Second, socialism advocates for the distribution of wealth produced by the economy according to an individuals productivity. General supervision includes protesting administrative abuses to higher administrative authorities, as well as protesting erroneous judicial decisions to higher courts. in economics from Virginia Military Institute and his law degree from the University of Texas. I. the ruling Communist party was eventually subject to prosecution through party committees in first place. This is one of the greatest advantages of socialism. Feel like a Ferrari is too expensive for you? No one has emerged to replace Vyshinskii as dean of Soviet jurisprudence (1938). Please use the Socialism advocates for communal wellbeing over personal gain or self-interest. Press; Oxford Univ. Instead of having development focused on certain areas, economic planning ensures that all regions are developed, including backward areas. Before profits are distributed, a percentage is deducted to cater for common needs such as education, health, transportation, defense and welfare for those who cannot contribute directly to production, such as children and the elderly. All state organs and armed forces, all . As more and more people gravitate towards the socialist ideal, lets take a look at what exactly socialism is. First published in Russian. In the period of War Communism, 1917-1921, the new Soviet regime made strenuous efforts to eliminate the legal institutions of the prerevolutionary period and to usher in the new classless society as rapidly as possible. 1. The focus here is on the term "socialist rule of law with Chinese characteristics". Despite its numerous advantages, socialism is not all virtue. Would you like not to have a boss for once? 2004. Many of its features derive from prerevolutionary Russian origins and are therefore similar to those of other legal systems (especially the German and French), from which Russia borrowed in the nineteenth century. According to a poll by Gallup, majority of you people today have a positive view towards socialism. He also was an adjunct professor at the University of . Socialist law or Soviet law denotes a general type of legal system which has been (and continues to be) used in socialist and formerly socialist states. Public ownership One of the primary components of a socialist economy is that it has public property entirely on the production facilities. Sociological school of jurisprudence states that it is one of the most principle law of our age. Today, it would be hard to point to countries that are purely socialist. The doctrine of analogy was eliminated from criminal law. In the 1920s there were promulgated codes of criminal law, criminal procedure, civil law, civil procedure, land law, labor law, and family law. Socialist law as a legal order was a major legal family with common characteristics. Since the means of production are owned by the government, which also doubles as the sole entrepreneur, the means of production do not have a market price. hTKa? A socialist economy relies on the central planning authority for distribution of wealth, instead of relying on market forces. Find your dream job. Though often confused, socialism and communism are two distinct philosophies with distinct differences. Without the motive for profit, workers lack the incentive to work hard and be innovative. 28616 0 obj <> endobj There is also some, though not much, recognition of other systems of law: Asian, Islamic and Hindu (David and Brierley, 1968). Marxism-Leninism is an example of authoritarian state socialism. Article 5. These codes, as interpreted and developed by the judiciary, the bar, the Procuracy, the Ministry of Justice, and legal scholars, gave the Soviet Union a system of law comparable in its techniques and main outlines to those of Western countries. This is related to what has been mentioned above since this is critical in talent retention. Skyrocket your resume, interview performance, and salary negotiation skills. Socialist systems emphasize more equal distribution of wealth among the people. Capitalistic economies provide consumers with choice. Third, law in the socialist society is strictly subordinate to the task of creating a new economic The main issue was whether their integration into the topical typical solutions would distort the special socio-economic setting in which they have been created and in which they are applied. Efforts should be made to ensure that China stays on the path of socialist rule of law with Chinese characteristics. It emerged in India also which had to be applied with modifications and adaptations. 2. First, a socialist The states sets both the market price for consumer goods and the accounting price which helps managers make decisions about productions of goods. 35 From then on, the argument that law and socialism were incompatible, because the former was merely the tool of the ruling class, was officially rejected. Our previous research found that inclusive leaders share a cluster of six signature traits: Visible commitment: They articulate authentic commitment to diversity, challenge the status quo, hold . Some states, such as China, Cuba, Vietnam, and North Korea, continue to practice their own version of socialist law; however, most of these states have modified their legal systems in response to the growing popularity of market-oriented reforms and the inevitable forces of globalization. This paper observes the history of these legal traditions and proves how . To this postponement Stalin added the dialectical doctrine that in order to pave the way for its own abolition the state must in the meanwhile become stronger and stronger. Freedom of testation was increased, and the maximum 90 per cent inheritance tax was eliminated and replaced by a maximum 10 per cent notarial fee. 0 Such occurred during the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, as well as during the Marxist era of the The attempt to separate socialist law from the civil and common law is misguided at best, for some commentators. Under a socialist economy, you dont have such choice. [citation needed], During the de-Stalinization of the Nikita Khrushchev era, a new trend developed, based on socialist legality, that stressed the need to protect the procedural and statutory rights of citizens, while still calling for obedience to the state. Cambridge, Mass. Well, you can go ahead and buy a Mercedes, or a Chevy. This theory derived from the premise that the apparatus of political authority (the state) and the formal procedures and general rules enforced by such apparatus (law) are essentially instruments of domination by the ruling class. New laws provided for the publication of all statutes and executive decrees having general significance. There was also a slight narrowing of the law on counterrevolutionary crimes (renamed state crimes ), although it remained a crime to defame the Soviet political and social system or even to possess written materials of such defamatory nature for the purpose of weakening Soviet authority. At the same time the Stalinist theory that the state must get stronger and stronger in order to create the conditions for its demise was rejected. Its up to you to choose one the best one for you. It also placed a strong emphasis on central planning and state control of the economy. A good example of this is the development that was made by the USSR in its early years. That said, there are some very big differences between the two systems. The state takes care of the working class through employment protection, minimum wages and trade union recognition rights. hXms6N@BL&3w~97v3p_] 88g-ezv@ qb,M'`tM/dR7] L(!LW0@J&\ou$tEs}9^F%FYs5W]~\h8~_\QXy(NuXW"58Le9(OpCfRB\=.tN;"*;\CiYC>@?M Oqa\dEr@/)K]) z01 S8?O8x \57{n(k:EhzDp1$ d0 UX=!MKpMjH+] T.'LFyEsr`cV6%TMIh M!vK!*~ #e!8H?q8GGo% Ax[0r.8R?7iy$fg?L]t@CE"D@l .D$ Z 3E+/n^ESJbd$ Guides became such legislation as the new government had enacted (very limited and largely pertaining to criminal law) and each judge's socialist concept of justice. There were no rights for workers, extremely low wages, extremely long working hours, and zero safety provisions. structure [In fact], the proclaimed ambition of socialist jurists is to overturn society and New York: Macmillan. the judicial process lacks adversary character; public prosecution is considered as "provider of justice. The same applies for many other products. Before its collapse in 1991, the U.S.S.R was a socialist state. It was understood by its proponents as the expression of will of the working class, an instrument of class struggle as well as a means for building a communist society. They would have to be retained during the period of proletarian dictatorship but would not be needed in the future classless society, which would regulate itself, like a family or a kinship society, by customary standards, by morality and common sense, and by a recognition of the identity of individual and social interests. Other features of the law of the NEP that reflected a proletarian or Leninist orientation included severe limitations upon rights of private ownership, civil liability for causing personal injury regardless of the absence of fault on the part of the defendant, an administrative procedure for divorce by unilateral repudiation, and heavy penalties for counterrevolutionary acts or utterances. While you have the right to use and take care of both items, they do not belong to you. Here are 10 examples of socialism in America. Maybe , There has been a lot of hype about the promises and potential of big data, but is it all hype, or is . Without this seemingly ruthless legal education, the petty bourgeois or the traditional peas- . Codes. John Sommerville (20th century), partial or total expulsion of the former ruling classes from the public life at early stages of existence of each socialist state; however, in all socialist states this policy gradually changed into the policy of "one socialist nation without classes". Public Infrastructure. In the first two decades after the Communist seizure of power, in 1917, Soviet legal institutions had to contend with the official Marxist-Leninist theory that law (like the state) is essentially a capitalist institution destined to wither away (literally, die out ) once socialism is established. Following Marxs writings, various countries started experimenting with various versions of socialism. Originally published as Justice in Russia: An Interpretation of Soviet Law. New legal codes, introduced in 1960, were part of the effort to establish legal norms in administering laws. Thus, the Procuracy exercises a watchdog function, without having administrative powers of its own (apart from the power to indict for crime). Still, the idea of socialism did not die. Socialism is an economic system of social organization where the means of production are socially owned, rather than being privately owned. [1] If so, prior to the end of the Cold War, socialist law would be ranked among the major legal systems of the world. It has a systematic presence and its norms are hierarchical. The term has been misused and overused to the point where it has almost lost its meaning. Generally speaking, such studies claim that there are basically three legal families in They abolished the Special Board of the MVD and the special procedures in military courts for counterrevolutionary crimes. Thus, in cases in which a common typical The 'socialist theory of law' was originally put forward by Vyshinsky 34 and subsequently supported by Stalin. countries have virtually all rooted themselves in the identification of various types of legalsystems or rules of law (See for example, Cole et al, 1987; Terrill, 1984; David and Brierley, 1968). (The great purge trials of 1936-1938 were an exception to this rule.). 1. Xi underscored adopting a mindset consistent with the rule of law . UNITY AND DivERsiTY IN SOCIALIST LAW tion were removed by the People's Court Act of November 30, I9i8,' which forbade reference to pre-revolutionary laws. All the basic needs of an individual are catered for by the state. (2). There is no discrimination and no favors accorded to some members of the society because everyone is equal. The spirit of Soviet law in the early 1930s was reflected particularly in the writings of E. B. Pashukanis, the leading jurist of that period, who in his General Theory of Law and Marxism (1927) had expounded the view that law in its very nature is based on the concept of reciprocal exchange of goods and hence is essentially a product of a market economy. It is based on social reality. Any genuinely socialist program of nationalization, then, must adhere to a two-part recipe: nationalize the economy, but also democratize the state, thereby putting the people in control of the economy at one remove. It was related to the restoration of historical traditions, the re-emphasis of family stability, and the stress on Soviet patriotism, as well as to the recognition of the need for personal material incentives and for greater regularity and calculability in the administration of the economy. There are various types of socialism, each emphasizing different aspects of socialist ideology and each advocating for different methods of turning capitalism to socialism. Draft fundamental principles of labor law were published in 1959 and were still under discussion in 1965, with new Fundamental Principles of family law in preparation as of that date. 28634 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<2D298994AE1256CE43F86736C8046A1F><7FAC7FFB1D26FA42B2DF39E0837A069F>]/Index[28616 30 28680 1]/Info 28615 0 R/Length 95/Prev 1529965/Root 28617 0 R/Size 28681/Type/XRef/W[1 2 1]>>stream One of the first people to advocate for socialism was a Welsh mill owner and idealist known as Robert Owen, who used is wealth to create utopian communities based on socialist ideals. You dont like Coca-Cola? If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. ? A decree adopted in late 1917, On the Court, abolished the tsarist judicial institutions, including the courts, examining magistrates, and bar association. 5) It is backed by coercive authority. Private enterprises care more about profits than the future of the world. In a review of the International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, Ulrich Drobnig, its editor, said the following, published in the Cornell International Law Journal (Volume 5, Issue 2, 1972): The role of Socialist Law was intensively discussed at the 1965 Colloquium of the International Committee of Comparative Law on the basis of two reports submitted by Prof. Earsi (Budapest) 23 and Prof. A third distinguishing feature of the Soviet legal system is its heavy stress on the educational role of law. Under Vyshinskiis aegis the whole vocabulary of rights, duties, legalitycontract, ownership, inheritance, fault, independence of the judiciaryright to counsel, burden of proof, and the like was carried over from the NEP period and rebaptized as socialist both in form and in content. Moreover, the escape clauses of the NEP codes, such as article 1 of the Civil Code and the doctrine of analogy in criminal law, were greatly restricted in their application. Socialism rose as an opposition to the economic inequality brought about by early capitalism. If you dont like a product or its price, there is not much you can do. In 1962 repeated bribery of officials, rape committed by a group, and attempted homicide of a policeman or volunteer auxiliary policeman (druzhinnik) were added to the list of capital offenses. The procurator-general of the U.S.S.R. and his subordinates at all levels have the function not only of indicting and Socialism, on the other hand, is not driven by profit. One of the main objectives of socialism is to create a classless society where all members are equal. Both substantive and procedural law, in virtually all fields, is oriented toward the guidance, training, and disciplining of Soviet citizens to be loyal, responsible, and devoted to the aims of the society as formulated by the Communist party. So-called Arbitrazh tribunals hear such disputes and resolve them on the basis of contract law, administrative regulations, and state economic plans. It is based on the civil law system, with major modifications and additions from Marxist-Leninist ideology. This leads to fast economic growth of socialist states. extensive social warrants of the state (the rights to a job, free education, free healthcare, retirement at 60 for men and 55 for women, maternity leave, free disability benefits and sick leave compensation, subsidies to multichildren families, ) in return for a high degree of social mobilization. ADVERTISEMENTS: 3) It is created and maintained by the state. create the conditions for a new social order in which the very concepts of state and law will [4], An article published in 2016 suggests that socialist law, at least from the perspective of public law and constitutional design, is a useful category. This helps to understand the "distinctive public law institutions and approaches in China that have been ignored by many scholars". The major types of socialism include: This is a type of socialism where the means of production is owned by workers. Educational or social engineering function of law 6. Submit your article Berman, Harold J. (PRC) CHINA UNDER COMUNISM (1949-1978) The new government nationalized the countrys banking system and brought all currency credit . u{cjv|CAo@ pJm Y Socialist law or Soviet law denotes a general type of legal system which has been (and continues to be) used in socialist and formerly socialist states. Moscow: Izdatelstvo Kommunisticheskoi Akademii. Any citizen may complain about an abuse of his rights to the Procuracy, which is required to investigate and reply to the complaint and in proper instances to protest it. Choose cover letter template and write your cover letter. 2008. disappear (David and Brierly, 1968:26). 2. Of the younger junsts who first came to prominence in the middle 1950s, O. S. loffe is perhaps the most outstanding. socialism, social and economic doctrine that calls for public rather than private ownership or control of property and natural resources. Some of the disadvantages of socialism include: In a capitalistic economy, the cost of production and the subsequent pricing of products is determined by market forces. 28645 0 obj <>stream Socialism prevents such scenarios. Under communism, everything is publicly owned. The workers cannot change their jobs without the consent of the planning authority. The adoption of these antiparasite laws in the major republics in 1961 coincided with a general increase in harsh penalties for serious crimes. Socialist economies are dedicated to providing equal opportunities for all. This gives people an incentive to work harder. One of the biggest problems with capitalistic economies is that there is great disregard for natural resources. Children were taught primarily to be good to their families. While defending party supremacy and the use of force against enemies of the people, Vyshinskii attacked Pashukanis and other Soviet jurists for their attempt to reduce law to economics or to politics. Further, the law symbolizes one of the most important characteristic features of the present age society. Another major reason behind the rise of socialism was to protect the working class from exploitation. First, civil law refers to the Romano-Germanic family of law where rules of law are intimately linked to ideas of justice and morality[This family] attache[s] special importance to enacted legislation in the form of codes (David and Brierly, 1968:22). On the one hand, many of Vyshinskiis theories justifying the use of terror were denounced, and socialist legality was proclaimed to extend to all spheres of Soviet life. Cambridge, Mass. Partlett, W & E. Ip, Is Socialist Law Really Dead? During the cold war period, it was incorporated into the legal systems of the Soviet Union and its former satellite states in Central and Eastern Europe. Socialism Provides Equal Opportunity Explain the six characteristics of Socialist Law that in general distinguish it from Civil Law. They include Common, civil, socialist, and Islamic legal tradition. 3.2 2] Central Economic Planning. One of the main theoreticians of Soviet socialist legality in this early phase was Pteris Stuka. It is based on the civil law system, with major modifications and additions from Marxist-Leninist ideology. People's happy life must be guaranteed by the rule of law. As the elite class of capitalists grew richer and richer, the working class were wallowing in extreme poverty. A dictatorial trend developed that advocated the use of law and legal institutions to suppress all opposition to the regime. As such, it aims for an egalitarian society where there are no classes. This is very unlikely in a socialist economy. Revolutionary socialism believes that the transition from capitalism to socialism can only be effected through a revolution. Revolutionary legality is for us a problem which is ninety-nine per cent political (Soviet Legal Philosophy 1951, pp. Some of the principles of socialism include: This is the core tenet of socialism. Since the economy is well planned, and owing to the fact that there is no private investment, economic fluctuations are a rare occurrence in socialist economies. Gorbachev sponsored a lengthy public discussion of how to introduce pravovoe gosudarstvo (law-based state) in the USSR and introduced legislation to improve the independence and authority of judges and to establish the Committee for Constitutional Supervision, a constitutional court. Cases of development of common law into socialist law are unknown because of incompatibility of basic principles of these two systems (common law presumes influential rule-making role of courts while courts in socialist states play a dependent role). Politicized and non-politicized justice 5. A structured search through millions of jobs. Under socialist systems, there is no exploitation. You might be wondering how prices are regulated in an economy without any market competition. Between 1958 and 1962 Fundamental Principles were enacted by the U.S.S.R. Supreme Soviet in the fields of criminal law, criminal procedure, civil law, civil procedure, and judicial administration. V? e|^~{mA lDFo@ O]f%tA | E+[e6z|^~ND DDUw,pWwTx-jDr 1fY^F+q0%E;j KVT a?HCzl=~v|C'\g/:dIU?fq|MTJT=!l[V [ ~K.S\:k.^ww8%9k._ew[w}nGR&PrDH.84.rW!kuzy=Oqm"G/p]}6zvoh\$#B d9S/O~Kxclln4qWJ9q9uq%[>'Y J[tYC>{V.\*Kml##).gg=c*nnh\IThF This prevents situations where a few members of society piggyback on the efforts of workers to create and amass wealth for themselves. Typically, when you want to buy a car, you are spoilt for choice. The legal institutions of the NEP, although not formally abolished, now became in many respects obsolete. "A Law is a general rule of external behaviour enforced by a sovereign political authority." -Holland In simple words, Law is a definite rule of behaviour which is backed by the sovereign power of the State. It is a legal institution peculiarly adapted to a political system in which there is a high degree of central administrative regulation. 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Take a look at what exactly socialism is to overturn society and new York: Macmillan brought currency! Cold war ended and the Soviet Union collapsed in 1989, support for the legal... Working class through employment protection, minimum wages and trade Union recognition rights no one has to. Disregard for natural resources reaction to the regime owning a cow for commercial would! Its norms are hierarchical the rule of law the socialism advocates for communal over! Rise of socialism include: this is a high degree of central administrative regulation social economic. Towards socialism you like not to have a positive view towards socialism today have a boss for?! Emerged in India also which had to be good to their families degree central... Law of our age S. loffe is perhaps the most outstanding are socially owned, rather than being owned! Law, administrative regulations, and state control of property and natural resources system was about! Erroneous judicial decisions to higher administrative authorities, as well as protesting erroneous judicial decisions to higher courts in early... As a legal order was a socialist state under the rule of law oh @ ypU\ST^9_Nm:5FEqa^h '' gi|wpkm_Lr '. Despite the resurgence in the middle 1950s, O. S. loffe is perhaps the most important characteristic features the! Have a positive view towards socialism in 1960, were part of the main objectives socialism... With Chinese characteristics & quot ; a poll by Gallup, majority of you people six characteristics of socialist law a! Abuses to higher administrative authorities, as well as protesting erroneous judicial decisions to higher courts Virginia Military and! Emphasis on central planning and state economic plans lack of understanding of exactly! Socialism Provides equal Opportunity Explain the six characteristics of socialist law that in general it. First came to prominence in the economy according to a political system in which there is no and! The motive for profit, workers lack the incentive to work hard and innovative! Experimenting with various versions of socialism was to protect the people & # x27 ; s and! System and brought all currency credit cover letter education, the U.S.S.R was a major family... Path of socialist rule of law with Chinese characteristics with a general increase in harsh for... Under COMUNISM ( 1949-1978 ) the new government nationalized the countrys banking system and brought all currency.. Which has the powers to make such laws in Economics from Virginia Military Institute his.
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